Chapter 2: The Changing Nature of Mobility

Chapter Overview

This chapter is aimed at highlighting the historic nature of the transformation happening in the Automotive sector. The automotive industry has come a long way from the birth of this industry in the late 18th century and this is made clear in this chapter by describing the history and the evolution of the earliest automobiles. This chapter then goes on to include the basic automotive terminology used in the traditional automotive ecosystem. It then continues to detail the transformation taking place in the automotive sector and enumerates the new autonomous terminology being utilized in the Connected & Autonomous Vehicles (CAV) eco-system. Finally, this chapter introduces the reader to the emerging area of smartcities and the cybersecurity challenges that will have to be overcome due to this shift in mobility.

History of the Automobile

The earliest “automobiles” were developed in the late 18th century. These were steam-powered, self-propelled vehicles large enough to transport people and cargo. A Frenchman by the name of Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot demonstrated his fardier à vapeur ("steam dray") in 1770 and 1771. This was an experimental steam-driven artillery tractor and proved to have had an unfeasible design. Later, in 1784, William Murdoch, a British Engineer, built a working model of a steam carriage in Redruth and in 1801, another Brit, Richard Trevithick was running a full-sized vehicle on the roads in Camborne. Also, in 1789, the first automobile patent in the United States was granted to Oliver Evans.

Figure 2: Cugnot's steam wagon, the second (1771) version During the early 1800s, there were plenty of innovations to improve the design of the steam-powered vehicles. These included hand brakes, multi-speed transmissions, and better steering. Further efforts to develop more usable vehicles were made throughout the century and by 1867, a Canadian jeweller named Henry Seth Taylor had demonstrated his 4-wheeled “steam buggy” at the Stanstead Fair in Stanstead, Quebec. This was succeeded by the development of the first "real" automobile, which was produced in 1873 by Frenchman Amédée Bollée in Le Mans. This vehicle was a self-propelled steam road vehicle to transport groups of passengers and was a major step forward in the development of the automotive industry.

Basic Automotive Terminology

In this section, some basic explanations, and definitions of the most fundamental automotive technology are detailed.

Internal Combustion Engine

Although, the early road vehicles used steam-powered vehicles, the Internal Combustion Engine or ICE is used in most automobiles on the road today. An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs in combination with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit and the energy produced enables the vehicle to move forward.

Figure 3 Engines in Vehicles

Some examples of Internal Combustion Engines being used in vehicles today include

• V6: A V-type engine consisting of two banks of three cylinders.
• V8: A V-type engine consisting of two banks of four cylinders, often found in trucks, luxury, and sports cars.
• V10: A V10 is an engine with 10 cylinders arranged in two rows of five. Some examples include the Audi R8, Lamborghini Sesto Elemento, and the Dodge Viper.
• V12: A V12 is any engine consisting of 12 cylinders arranged in two rows of six cylinders. V12s are largely uncommon and typically found in flagship sedans (BMW 7 Series, Audi A8, Mercedes-Benz S Class) and outlandish exotics like the Enzo, Pagani Zonda, and McLaren.
• V16: A V16 engine is any engine with 16 cylinders arranged in the shape of a "V" with two banks consisting of eight cylinders each. Modern V16s are rare and have typically been restricted to concept cars and limited run vehicles from smaller boutique manufacturers.

Drivetrain

The drivetrain of a motor vehicle is the group of components that deliver power to the driving wheels. This excludes the engine or motor that generates the power.

Powertrain

The powertrain is considered to include both the engine or motor and the drivetrain.

Transmission

A car's transmission "transfers" power from the engine or motor to a drive mechanism, often a live axle, through a series of gears and clutch.

Clutch

A device that disconnects the engine from the transmission, which allows the car to change gears and then reconnect again once the gear change has been made.

Manual Transmission:

A type of transmission that requires drivers to shift manually from gear to gear.

Automatic Transmission:

A type of transmission that automatically changes gears instead of making the driver shift through them manually.

CVT (Continuously Variable Transmission):

Abbreviation for Continuously Variable Transmission. This type of transmission does not have "gears" like a manual or automatic.

Cabin:

Cabin refers to the interior space of a car.

Dashboard:

The area located above and behind a steering wheel that typically houses the instrument cluster and other on-board electronics.

Instrument Cluster:

The area behind the steering wheel, often featuring a tachometer and speedometer.

Differential:

A set of gears that allows a vehicle’s wheels to rotate at different speeds. This is critical when the vehicle is turning as the outermost wheel needs to turn further and faster than the innermost wheel.

Limited Slip Differential:

Cars with limited slip differentials can send rotational power to both wheels when one is raised off the ground or experiencing slippage. This is different from standard or "open" differentials. These cannot perform this task where if one wheel is raised off the ground, it will spin while the wheel in contact with the ground will remain stationary.

Displacement:

Displacement refers to the volume of an engine’s cylinders and the total air displaced by the pistons inside those cylinders. Displacement generally defines how powerful an engine is and is typically measured in cubic centimeters/liters and cubic inches. As an example, a "2.8-liter engine" displaces 2.8 cubic liters (or 2,800 cubic centimeters, or "2,800cc") of air in one complete combustion cycle.

ESC (Electronic Stability Control):

ESC monitors a car’s traction and provides various counter-measures – like braking and even reducing engine power – to help regain vehicle stability during strenuous driving conditions.

HP (Horsepower):

HP is an abbreviation for horsepower, and it refers to the amount of power needed to lift 550 pounds one foot in one second. Horsepower is often used when calculating how fast or powerful a vehicle is but other factors like vehicle weight and aerodynamics also play a role.

MPG (Miles Per Gallon):

MPG is the amount (in miles) a vehicle can travel per gallon of gasoline used while the engine is running.

Speedo (Speedometer):

Speedo is short for speedometer, which is a meter or gauge used to measure how fast your vehicle is traveling. Most speedometers are measured in either miles per hour or kilometers per hour.

Tachometer:

Tachometers are typically placed in a vehicle's instrument cluster and measure RPMs (revolutions per minute). This is the number of times an engine’s central crankshaft rotates.

Torque:

Torque is the pulling power of a vehicle. This is obviously a crucial measure for trucks hauling heavy loads. Sports cars also typically have greater torque as cars with higher levels of torque can also accelerate faster. Torque is measured in pound-feet (lb-ft).

Turbocharging:

Turbocharging is the method of increasing air pressure, temperature, and density of the air delivered to an engine (also known as "forced induction"). A turbocharger is powered by a car's exhaust or sometimes by electricity.

Automotive Sector evolution

In the last few years, the automotive sector has evolved considerably. The primary reason for this evolution is the human desire to always stay connected and the catalyst for this evolution are new and exciting technologies that can enable this connectivity. Innovation has also ensured that there are immense synergies in the "Vehicle of the Future" for both the Automotive and Information Technology industries. Examples of these innovations include the environmentally friendly electric vehicles (EVs) and V2X (Vehicle to Everything) connectivity for enabling communications outside the vehicle. Other innovations are happening daily as automotive technology is used to solve new challenges for the Automotive sector. This means that the field of Automotive Technology is projected to grow exponentially for the foreseeable future and ensure that self-driving autonomous vehicles (AVs) develop into more efficient and safer forms of transportation.

Automotive Technology History

Since the Internal Combustion Engine was invented in the 1800's, the automotive industry was perceived to be related to the field of Mechanical Engineering. Building a vehicle was always about steel and plastic. In contrast, the technology industry has always been all about computers & lines of software code and has proliferated into our daily lives from cell phones to ATMs. This proliferation of technology into society has also slowly but steadily entered the automotive sector. Some examples of this technology enablement in vehicles are apps for navigation based on global positioning systems (GPS) and software that enables better design of vehicles. However, there was slow acceptance of this technological evolution from the consumers. Thus, only recently consumers have become accepting of the integration of technology into their everyday vehicle.

Mobility's new frontiers: CASE

Today, we are living through a time when Mobility is undergoing one of the most transformational social, technological, and economic shifts of recent times. This transformation in Mobility is defined as CASE (Connected, Autonomous, Secure, Electric) and is being influenced by disruptive forces unleashed by technologies related to Connected & Autonomous Vehicles (CAVs), Electric Vehicles (EVs) & alternative powertrains, and on-demand mobility services. New business models and markets are being emerging and whole sectors related to transportation are either converging or even vanishing entirely.

Let us explore each Influencer of CASE in more detail.

Connected

Today we live in a connected world and data is on our fingertips all the time. This ability to "Connect" everywhere has also been applied to enhance our experience in mobility and a number of features have been added to the modern vehicle to make it a "Connected Vehicle" (CV). These include apps for drivers and passengers such as navigation and infotainment apps to more advanced telematics functions. Furthermore, technologies such as ADAS & LiDAR help make the driving experience safer and richer while providing important information in the background to improve the performance of the CV.

Autonomous

An Autonomous Vehicle (AV), also known as a self-driving car, is a vehicle that can guide itself without human interaction. Today, self-driving cars are a reality, and they are being road-tested in many urban test centers. Soon, we will have these "robots" as part of our everyday lives.

There are five levels of Autonomous Vehicles as explained in the image below.

Figure 4 Levels of Autonomous Vehicles

Secure

Although, some organizations use the "S" in CASE for the "Shared" business model of modern vehicles, "Secure" is much more appropriate considering the cybersecurity challenges in CAVs. This is because of the fact that if a CAV is not secure then it cannot be driven as it is a health & safety hazard. However, that realization is only beginning to assimilate into the automotive sector resulting in more emphasis on the "Secure" part of CASE.

Electric

Innovations in power devices, cells. and batteries have made "Electric Vehicles" (EVs) viable for ownership and transportation. Both types of Electric Vehicle, all-electric vehicles (AEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) have proved successful commercially and have been accepted by consumers. Also, Electric Vehicle Chargers can now be found easily and this barrier to greater ownership of the EV is slowly becoming obsolete.

CAV Technology Defined

In today's world of Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CAV), Automotive technology can be defined as the field of integrating technology into self-propelled vehicles or machines. In this brave new world, OEMs, existing suppliers, and innovative start-ups are ensuring that the intersection of automotive transportation and new technologies leads to an enhancement of our "driving" and "transportation" experience. This is a wide-ranging group of technologies and have grown to become major economic eco-systems such as Electric Vehicles and ride-share platforms.

Auto-Tech in Connected Vehicle

This section briefly defines the various technologies used in today's vehicles.

ECU

An ECU or the Electronic Control Unit is used in Connected Vehicles to control the functioning of vehicle components through a computer with internal preprogrammed and programmable computer chips. For example, the vehicles engine computer ECU is used to operate the engine by using input sensors and output components to control all engine functions.

CANBus

The CANBus is short for Controller Area Network Bus. This is a connectivity protocol that was developed by Robert Bosch and has quickly gained acceptance in the automotive and aerospace industries. The CANbus is basically a serial bus protocol to connect individual systems and sensors as an alternative to conventional multi-wire looms.

ABS

Anti-locking braking system (ABS) is an automated safety system that helps a vehicle's wheels continue to rotate during heavy braking. This ensures that the driver does not lose control of the vehicle due to uncontrollable wheel skidding.

ACC (Adaptive Cruise Control)

Adaptive Cruise Control is a form of cruise control that automatically (without any driver input) brakes and accelerates to match the flow of traffic. Some ACC systems can even come to a complete stop and accelerate from a standstill.

LiDAR

LIDAR stands for Light Detection and Ranging and uses laser pulses to build a 3D model of the environment around the car. Essentially, they help autonomous vehicles "see" other objects, like cars, pedestrians, and cyclists, around them.

Lane Departure Warning System (LDWS)

Lane departure systems are a form of onboard safety tech and warn the driver through cameras and onboard sensors whether the vehicle is drifting out of marked lanes. Typically, LDWS involve some type of audio-visual warning for the driver.

In-Car Connectivity

In-car connectivity refers to the technologies that are used when inside the vehicle. Some examples of this are handsfree Bluetooth connectivity for mobile devices, navigation, and the vehicle's multimedia entrainment system.

GPS

GPS stands for Global Positioning System, which is based on a network of satellites in orbit around the earth. The signals from the satellites can be used to pinpoint a location on Earth with remarkably high accuracy. GPS is commonly used in a car's navigation system and in cell phones mapping apps.

NAV System

NAV Systems is an abbreviation for navigation systems and is sometimes also referred to as a GPS system.

Blind spot monitoring

Blind spot monitoring is a technology that scans a vehicle's blind spot for objects. If detected, a warning is given to the driver of the vehicle. This might be just a visual warning or an audible warning depending on whether a turn signal is activated when another car is present in a blind spot.

Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a radio system with the ability to transmit data over short distances, usually a maximum of 30 feet or so. In a car, a Bluetooth connection is typically in the form of wireless music streaming and hands-free phone usage.

Infotainment

A Combination of information and entertainment apps that are provided in the Connected Vehicle. This might include the navigation and stereo interface and employ touchscreens and have limited smartphone app integration as well as social media content such as Twitter and Facebook.

Push button Ignition

Push button ignition (also referred to as push button start) is any system that allows you to start a car by pressing a button instead of physically inserting and turning a key in the ignition.

Key Fob

In the automotive world, a key fob is a small decorative item, often sporting an automaker's logo, that can lock, unlock, open the trunk, and sometimes start a vehicles engine.

Remote Start

Remote start refers to any car that can be started without physically being inside the car and using a key to turn the ignition. An example of this would be to use an app on your smartphone to start the vehicle. However, there are cybersecurity ramifications of such a technology.

Keyless entry

Keyless entry denotes a car that can be unlocked without physically inserting a key to unlock the doors. Typically, this is done using a key fob that enables the system to work.

Smart Key

A smart key is any car key that can lock, unlock, and sometimes start a car's engine remotely.

Touchscreen

A touchscreen is any interactive screen that provides some sort of tactile feedback when pressed. Touchscreens in automobiles are typically used for in-car entertainment and navigation systems.

WI-FI

Cars with built-in Wi-Fi allow a specific number of devices to be connected to the network and for data to be transmitted and received wirelessly to those devices.

LCD Display

A liquid crystal display (LCD display) is a flat panel screen often used to display a car's navigation and entertainment system. Generally, LCD displays contain tiny liquid crystal material between two pieces of polarized glass.

OBD II

OBD Il stands for on-board diagnostics and is an industry-standard port found in modern vehicles that is used to connect diagnostic equipment, vehicle data and diagnostic trouble codes through a car's on-board computer. When a vehicle is taken to a maintenance provider, they plug their computer into the ODB Il port. App makers can also make use of this port to provide information on the status of various performance metrics of the vehicle.

Regenerative braking

Braking systems typically employed in hybrids and battery electric vehicles that captures energy created during braking and transfers it to the onboard battery.

Semi-autonomous vehicles

Semi-autonomous vehicles refer to vehicles that largely operate on their own and without a normal levels of driver input. These vehicles might have automated features such as adaptive cruise control or lane keeping technology.

Start-Stop

Any car equipped with a start-stop system can automatically shut down its engine when idling and start back up again when the driver takes their foot off the brake. It is often a feature in hybrids and is designed to help increase fuel economy.

ADAS

Advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) are electronic systems that help the vehicle driver while driving or during parking.

Telematics

Telematics is a method of monitoring an asset (car, truck, heavy equipment, or even ship) by using GPS and onboard diagnostics to record movements on a computerized map.

Electric Vehicle Terms Defined

Below are some terms commonly used in Electric Vehicles.

EV

EV is an abbreviation for Electric Vehicle.

Hybrid

A hybrid is any vehicle that employs more than one source of power to move the vehicle. An overwhelming number of hybrids on the road today employ a gasoline engine and an electric motor.

Li-ion battery

Li-ion batter is an abbreviation for lithium-ion battery, a type of rechargeable battery used to power electric cars and hybrids.

Hybrid

A hybrid is any vehicle that employs more than one source of power to move the vehicle. An overwhelming number of hybrids on the road today employ a gasoline engine and an electric motor.

Li-ion battery

Liion batter is an abbreviation for lithium-ion battery, a type of rechargeable battery used to power electric cars and hybrids.

Level 1 Electric Vehicle Charging Stations

Level 1 refers to electric vehicle charging stations and standard household outlets that deliver 120 volts of AC to an EV's on-board battery.

Level 2 Electric Vehicle Charging Stations

Level 2 chargers refer to public and private charging stations that deliver 240 volts worth of AC to an electric vehicle's on-board battery.

MPGe

MPGe stands for miles per gallon equivalent. MPGe describes the energy efficiency of an EV and plug-in hybrid. The standard conversion used by the EPA is 115,000 British thermal units (BTU) per U.S. gallon of gas, which is equal to 33.7 kilowatt-hours of electricity. Essentially, this measure refers to how far the car could go on a gallon of gas if that was the fuel being used.

SmartCities of the Future

The world is becoming more urbanized, and more than 60% of the world's population is expected to live in cities by 2050. Across the world, cities are using technology to rapidly transform themselves and manage this influx of people to improve all aspects of their citizens' lives. Healthcare, Finance, Education, Logistics & Supply Chain, Entertainment and, indeed, all other facets of human life are being improved through Smart technology initiatives. This rapid trend towards SmartCities is essential for the future of humanity as making the urban centers of the world better places to live in would ensure the sustainability of human life.

The changes in Mobility are an important part of SmartCity initiatives and Infrastructure elements that enable transportation are being deployed in these SmartCities. These technologies are used in automotive transportation but are not necessarily tied to the vehicle itself. Thus, there is a need for Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communication to enable smooth functioning of traffic to ensure the lifelines of SmartCities i.e., its transport networks continue providing supplies and transportation to all the citizens of the SmartCity.

Mobility & Cyber Governance Challenges

Data has become essential for smooth operations of all aspects of the SmartCity. This includes the data needed for the efficient functioning of its Mobility component. Privacy, Authentication, Encryption, Cloud Connectivity, Incident response and in-vehicle security challenges for Connected & Autonomous Vehicles (CAV) need to be explored and solutions proposed to ensure that the data used in the CAV is secure and protected. Furthermore, transmission of data during Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communication into the SmartCity infrastructure needs to be protected and governed by Cyber Governance frameworks.

What you Learned in this Chapter

This chapter was meant to give you an understanding of the transformation happening in Mobility. This includes the following areas:

• The history of the automotive sector
• Basic automotive terminology traditionally used in the automotive sector
• The transformational changes occurring in Mobility, as defined by CASE
• CAV Technology terminology
• EV terminology
• SmartCities and a brief description about their corresponding cyber challenges.

Reference

• History of the automobile - Wikipedia
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V_engine